Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia

Nathans, Ben. Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

Although I cannot do justice to University of Pennsylvania professor Benjamin Nathans's book Beyond the Pale, I will nonetheless attempt to briefly describe it. Essentially, Nathans describes the Jewish community that left the restricted area of the Russian Pale and went to St. Petersburg. Part of this story is the changing circumstances of Jews in Russia. The Jewish population expanded considerably at the time of Catherine the Great after she annexed Poland and other Baltic countries, which were home to much of Europe's Jewish population. This annexation led to official concern for the integration of Jews into Russian life. Nathans makes the point that this concern was not unique to the Jewish minority population in Russia--integration was always an imperial goal, but it was more overt and much more pronounced. Education and conscription seemed to be avenues to integration. Russia's draconian conscription policy of 25 years of service took many young Jews away from their families. At the end of the 25 year period, if you were still alive, you could move out of the Pale and into St. Petersburg. Special privileges to leave the restricted Jewish area (as large as the country of France) were also given to certain artisans, professionals, and to students. But Imperial Russia was never satisfied with the results of their policies over a hundred years of trying: quotas were tightened, loosened, and tightened again. Officials could not decide, for instance, if the Jews were a bad influence on Russians--turning them away from Christianity and toward Nihilism, or if Russians were a bad influence on the Jews--turning them into revolutionaries. In addition, popular and official beliefs were that the Jewish migrants to St. Petersburg were viewed as too successful; they were taking all the places in the professions; they had more babies than Russians; and they were invading the schools. Nathans looks at census documents, the shift of primary languages among the Jewish population and other details of acculturation; he explores the verifiable and mythological stories of the various ways some of the population attempted to circumvent the quotas and restrictions; compares Russia's policy toward its Jewish population with the policies of Europe. In many ways, Russia lagged far behind Europe both in its policies and its modernization. But it also has the sad legacy of anticipating the virulent anti-semitism that spread through Europe as the century turned. As with any excellent book, Nathans, by describing a particular opens the readers eyes to other similar instances perhaps closer to home, teaching a broader lesson in history. Nathan shows how Russia, though seeking to acculturate its Jewish population, could not resist continuing to single them out through laws of quotas and restrictions, thereby, creating a clearly defined "other," ripe for scape-goating and vilification. 

Find this book at a library near you.

New Online Short Fiction by Walter Giersbach, No. 2

and if one newly published short story isn't enough good news--two certainly is great news:

I'm happy to see that a new short short story--"Big Biz @ the Mall"-- is up at The Corner Club Press.  The editor said two days after I submitted it, "You knew we were going to accept this." Well, no I didn't.

   I bounced a draft copy off an 18-year-old to get her thoughts. "Any typos or misspellings?" I asked. "No," she replied, "well, maybe one word's misspelled."  (You know who you are, young lady, but I won't embarrass you or anything.) 

   How about you?  You can find it in Issue IV, pp. 50-51 at http://www.thecornerclubpress.com/uploads/6/0/5/3/6053731/the_corner_club_press_issue_4.pdf, and read it between subway stops, while waiting for the barkeep to bring your beer, or during your first bathroom break at work.

--Walt

Note from the blogger: You not only get the fast paced short story by author Giersbach, you get the entire 116 page anthology from Corner Club Press. Not to be missed! Many thanks Walter. Open Access and Digital Humanities all wrapped up into one.

Recommended Short Fiction from Walter Giersbach, No. 1

Grinnell alumnus and east coast resident Walter Giersbach, one of the Favorite Book Reviews favorite book reviewers, writes:

And now a I'm happy that after much waiting my "Fish Stories and the Mermaid" has been  posted at Bewildering Stories (at http://www.bewilderingstories.com/issue439/fish_stories.html).

As animals and humans crowd each other out of their habitats, we know they adapt, but in what curious ways?  Now if I can only learn to hold my breath under water.

Enjoy!

--Walt

http://allotropiclucubrations.blogspot.com/

The Cyclist

Berberian, Viken. The Cyclist: A Novel. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.

I know almost nothing about Berberian as a writer. According to Amazon.com he writes for newspapers, The New York Times, Le Monde, The Financial Times, and others. He has a second novel out, Das Kapital: A Novel of Love and Money Markets, 2007.  When I say that Berberian is a poet, I do not know whether or not he writes poetry, but his use of language in The Cyclist shows a love and mastery of language that one associates with the careful precise use of poets. Berberian's protagonist is a young man who, the reader learns only towards the end of the novel, was recruited into a terrorist organization (the Academy) following a major bomb explosion of his natal village market square. His target is to be the Summerland Hotel on the beaches of Lebanon. It is clear that this act of revenge is to be carried out regardless of the loss of innocent lives, beleaguered citizens of a battle scarred country.

In preparation for this attack, the protagonist trains to take part in a bicycle race, eventually to veer off from the pack, and to take the bomb to the hotel where he will activate it to kill the maximum number of people. Having sustained great injuries as a result of his training, the novel opens with the cyclist in a hospital bed, unable to blink, unable to eat, unable to move, unable to speak because of a cycling accident. Through careful attention from medical experts and familial and Academy members, one of whom he is a childhood friend Ghaemi who he is very much in love with, the cyclist makes complete recovery.

The novel is written in a sort of stream of consciousness. The reader is unclear what is going on, because the narrator is also only partially informed and aware of what is happening. We have no idea whether Ghaemi loves him or is acting as a loyal member of the Academy. We do not know the sincerity of the leader Sadji who travels, buys clothes at the most expensive boutiques, and, in the name of deception and fact finding, spends time recreating with the higher levels of society. We do know that neither Ghaemi nor Sadji intend to risk their lives to carry out their prime initiative. Neither do we know whether they have had something to do with the accident that put the cyclist in the hospital, whether anything they say can believed beyond its power to manipulate the protagonist.

The cyclist is a lover of food and this figures as prominently in his thoughts as love and desire for Ghaemi. Once out of the hospital, the cyclist follows the path set out for him by the Academy. The reader begins to see the events that have brought him to the point of carrying out mass murder, but the logic of an action that harms the same people who are being avenged  is never apparent. There is no logic, only passion, and seductive power. As the cyclist inadvertently meets, face to face, people who will be victims of his action, the juice man who saved his life after the first accident, a cellist who escapes one terrorist act only to unwittingly be confronted by his, the cyclist's own grasp of the logic of his action begins to crumble.

Berberian, through his narrator, illustrates the richness of a culture eviscerated by wars and American hegemony through the succulent elements of its cuisine and culinary practices. As the protagonist prepares himself for his bloody task, he calms himself through the repetition of instructions and concepts, the importance of bicycle helmets, the baby that is his bomb and the baby that could be his and Ghaemi's true child, the listing of dishes and their ingredients.

As the novel reaches its conclusion, the cyclist attempts to explain how he has come so far beyond his passion for the tastes of his native cuisine to the task of an out of scale revenge. He tells his readers or listeners or imagined audience, "I suppose one can be philosophical and ask as I do every day why some of us return home safely after a morning of shopping at the fish market, sifting through rows of mollusk and marlin, while others become the target of a mugging, a beating, even a bombing. For years I have wrestled to find the answer. But what is the point of procrastination? The road to terrorism does not begin with boredom." (170).

It is clear as the narration progresses, that the protagonist does not want to die, and his determination to carry out the plan becomes rattled when, the night before he is to carry out the bombing, he is told by Sadji that the plan has changed and they want him to explode the bomb in effect, as a suicide, "deliver the baby straight from your bosom" (162).

The rest I leave for you to discover.

I didn't realize until after I had read the novel that it was written in 2002. Since I just bought it in a small bookstore (Bindlestiff between 44th and 45th on Baltimore Avenue in West Philadelphia), I just assumed it was new. I was already amazed with the intricate beauty of Berberian's writing on such a subject...giving the reader so much to think about and weigh, but my amazement is magnified thinking of the task of writing this so soon after the 9/11 event--provoking both sympathy and judgment in the reader.

Find this novel at a library near you.

The End of the West: The Once and Future Europe

Marquand, David. The End of the West: The Once and Future Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.

Marquand's examination of the European Union focuses on aspects of nationalism, ethnicity, regionalism, federalism, borders, and unity. As Marquand describes it, the European Union was and is a grand plan to mitigate the hegemony of Napoleons, Hitlers, and Stalins; to prevent the imperial designs and desires of individuals and nations. Marquand contends that the idea that pureness of blood or specific ethnicities should determine national boundaries is a relatively recent event in history, predating Hitler to be sure, but brought to its most complete manifestation by his Nazi regime. The European Union sought to do away with this way of thinking once and for all through diminishing the importance of borders through the unification of economies, monetary units, laws, and policies. Marquand shows that as national borders have faded in some respects, internal ethnic lines have become more indelibly drawn. In fact, as the European Union embraces countries farther afield geographically, economically, and perhaps ideologically from the initial core countries, unity may be an ever more difficult goal to reach. (Positive manifestations of this can be seen in the United Kingdom, where Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland have achieved governing bodies independent of England, while staying within the UK).

Marquand discusses the difficulties with gaining popular acceptance of the EU constitution, the quandries related to the admittance of former Soviet Satellites, and only briefly at Turkey's efforts to join (A brand new book is out on Turkey and the European Union-look for a brief look at this book in a future blog entry).

A supporter of the union, Marquand asserts that it has accomplished more than anyone could possibly have expected as it came into formation. He considers the concept of East and West, dating from the time of the ancient Greeks, and points out the folly of Western rhetoric failing to recognize the foundational contributions of cultures beyond the imagined geographical West. As many of these non-Western nations rise to prominence in world affairs, Marquand writes that, [W]e shall have to recognize that the familiar "Western" narrative of global history . . .is a parochial distortion of a far more complex truth....[W]e shall have to accept that the "West" will never again call the shots in global politics: that there is no longer a "West" to call them" (177). Yet he sees hope in a functional European federation--and that creating such an entity is Europe's greatest challenge.

Find this book in a library near you.

Interdisciplinary Conversations

Strober, Myra. Interdisciplinary Conversations: Challenging Habits of Mind. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011.

An excellent discussion of how scholars work and communicate in the different disciplines and the difficulty of communicating across disciplines because of learned habits of mind. Strober, after conducting a case study of a selection of funded interdisciplinary study groups at three different universities, makes recommendations on how such groups can be conducted so as to have productive outcomes. She specifically recommends that participants lay aside the learned habit of approaching new concepts from the perspective of doubting and work from a perspective of first believing and then questioning. She writes that "synthesizing ideas from disparate disciplines is unfamiliar and uncomfortable. But it is in that discomfort that the seeds of creativity lie, and if the group can continue to play the believing game--not insisting on certainty, closure, or judgments--participantsmay ultimately move to new truths and imaginative solutions" (165). It is about listening with an open mind, trying on ideas, doing away with certainty about any single approach, method, or idea as the only possible scholarly path.

Miroslav Penkov's East of the West: A Country in Stories

Penkov, Miroslav. East of the West: A Country in Stories. NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011.

I read this collection of short stories on the recommendation of my daughter Helen, and her boyfriend Max. I am not disappointed but completely gratified. I found myself looking forward more than usual to the intervals during the day I get to devote to reading and am sorry to put the book down. The stories are about Bulgaria, Bulgarians, and Bulgarian expatriots in the United States, separated from their families, their language, and the tenacious remnants of culture that have survived invaders from the Ottoman Empire to the Soviet Empire. These stories portray an extreme and, I guess, blood soaked country, with an impoverished population, resisting imperial pressures at the same time that they look reluctantly to the West for something better. "Makedonija," tells the story of an old man's love for his ailing wife, "East of the West," is a tragic story of families divided by politically motivated boundaries and  a younger generation whose passions are stronger than their fear of death.  "Buying Lenin," is about a young man who, in opposition to his party faithful grandfather, tenaciously learns English with the intention of studying in the United States. Once there, despite his language skills, the young man finds that he is not connecting with fellow students or faculty, and as he isolates himself, he seeks to reconnect with his grandfather.  "The Night Horizon," is a striking story that seems to be in the present and the past at the same time. A father raises his infant daughter as a boy so that she can learn his craft of making bagpipes. At the same time, her mother becomes very ill and connected to tubes and bags of fluids. Set apart from the other children because of the way her father has raised her, her father also keeps her from her mother--no hugs or kisses, no comfort for either of them. Their isolation intensifies as Kemal and her father set out to make 100 bagpipes in hopes of curing her mother. The final story in the collection, "Devshirmeh," is both heartbreaking and hopeful as Mihail, after seven years in the United States, separated from his mother and sister, is without work, money, or his wife. However, he still has his daughter with whom he spends weekends. Mihail, who insists that his daughter speaks Bulgarian reads her Bulgarian stories, and spins his memories into an epic tale about his great grandmother, the most beautiful woman in the world, and the Turkish Sultan who spends his life languashing for her. As he tells his daughter, the story begins in blood and so it must end in blood. As Mihail, his daughter, and their friend John Martin are caught in and survive their own epic storm, he brings his tale to a close.

Penkov's stories are compelling, moving, beautifully written with hardly a word out of place. He tells each story from a new perspective, each time revealing the hearts of his characters to the reader.

Reading about Russia

Lukacs, John. June 1941: Hitler and Stalin. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006

  Lukacs' irreverent style keeps this brief history of the months and days leading to Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union entertaining and a quick read. There are few people to admire in this turning point in Hitler's attempt to subdue all of Europe. Was Stalin's motivation to make and keep peace with Hitler motivated by his desire to stay out of a war for which Russia was ill prepared? Whether or not this was the case, Stalin's desire was so strong that he did not recognize Hitler's intent or chose to ignore all signs of the German preparations to invade. Lukacs points out that the many Communists suffering in Hitler's own prison camps would have lost all hope in support from Russia as this agreement was signed. As Stalin acted in good faith (seems incongruous to type Stalin and good faith so close to each other), sending to Germany promised trainloads of supplies along the railroads built by Soviet prisoners who were living in state imposed conditions of slave labor and starvation, Hitler made his plans to attack Russia. Because Stalin refused to acknowledge the many messages from not only his own ambassadors and diplomats, but from diplomats from Japan, England, and elsewhere, Hitler and his forces did not have to worry about operating in secrecy to secure a surprise attack. Germany was able to gather enough information to destroy the Soviet air force on the first day of their invasion. Lukacs delves into the psychology of Stalin and Hitler, comparing the two men and their rise to power and their shared need to do away with any any hint of opposition.

Frazier, Ian. Travels in Siberia. NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010.

 Frazier describes his growing desire to travel across the remarkable expanse that is Siberia. As a prelude to his own journey, he becomes familiar with all of the literature provided by earlier travelers, most significantly, George Kennan, a relative of the more famous George Frost Kennan, who not only crossed Siberia but became acquainted with the Russian Siberian prison system that predated the system that was greatly expanded under the Soviets.

He begins his travels in stages, first heading to Alaska, where he waits for the opportunity to fly across the Bering Sea to Chukotka, on  Russia's eastern edge, from Nome, Alaska, a town I that you can only fly into. There are no roads leading into (or out of) Nome. (I spent a lot of time with Google maps finding the Diomedes Islands, Nome, Chukotka and able to get close enough to see the remote station on Big Diomedes...).

When he finally begins his journey, which he will undergo by car, Frazier engages two men who have their own ideas about how to get across the great land mass. Their ideas continually clash with Frazier's and Frazier responds petulantly, with exasperation, and with some self-awareness of his own inability to manage with his own personal resources. As seems to happen, the fact that Frazier can not communicate with them on an intellectual level to which he is accustomed, leads him to assume to interpret their conversation and actions as commical. Yet, they are the ones with the skill, cultural knowledge, and where-with-all to make his trip a success.

Frazier is intent on exploring references in the literature and histories he has read. Much of it represents a darker history than either of his fellow travelers are comfortable uncovering. When Frazier refuses to accept his partner's demand that he not photograph a sensitive sight, they nearly part ways.

This books is fascinating from cover to cover in all of its aspects: geography, history, the many people Frazier meets over the long period of his interest and fascination with Russia, the travails and rewards of his travels, and his evolving relationship with his continental cohort.

If you read this book .... you may find yourself plotting how you might indulge in even a small portion of this travel--perhaps, though, by train.


Petkevich, Tamara. Memoir of a Gulag Actress. Translated by Yasha Klots and Ross Ufberg. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2010 (first appeared in Russia in 1993).


And here is the other side, not passing through, but inprisoned in various camps throughout the north for seven years. Petkevich was born into loyal revolutionary family, both mother and father. Her father was arrested in the 30s and sent away to camp. Petkevich became acquainted with young man while standing in lines to find out about her father's whereabouts. She eventually follows him to Frunze in Kazakhstan to marry him. Things begin their tragic course as first she hears of the Germana invasion, then the deaths of her mother and sister, her remaining sister sent to an orphanage. First her husband is arrested and then she herself is arrested under article 58, political crimes. It is 1943, Petkevich is 23. She is released at age 30 in 1950, having given birth to and lost her son to his free father. Traumatized but with strong ties to her fellow prisoners, the disaster begins again as one by one her friends are rearrested and once more sent away to exile and camps. Petkevich is heavily recruited to be an informer, but she decides that it is better to risk death than to cause others pain. Suddenly the pressure stops, and although there is no mention of a change in the government or in policy, the terror subsides (but does not disappear altogether).

Petkevich's memoir is a glimpse into prison society, the inhumane treatment, the exploitation of the imprisoned artists and intellectuals, the starvation of the body and the mind, and the amazing ability to survive and to retain spirit and integrity when there seems to be no hope, no joy, no future.

All of these books are available at a library near you!

Malcolm X

Manning Marable. Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York: Viking, 2011).
Burling 1st floor  BP223.Z8 L57636 2011
Reviewed by T. Hatch

Manning Marable argued that Malcolm X was the most important black leader of the twentieth century.  On its face this is a bold assertion; Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention stands as a forceful testament to the veracity of Marable’s audacious claim. This long awaited book (twenty years in the making) makes Malcolm a human being with a wealth of foibles and strengths.  It is certain to inspire further discussion and will just as certainly anger more than a few readers.

The description of this book as simply a biography does not do it justice.  The background to the founding ideology of the Nation of Islam and the astute political commentary throughout the work belie the notion that this is merely biography.  Thus, there are numerous ways to conceptualize this magnificent book.   I have chosen to divide it into three major parts i.e. corrections to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, the break with the Nation of Islam, and finally the assassination and legacy of Malcolm X.

Between 1965 and 1977 The Autobiography of Malcolm X sold over six million copies worldwide (I first read the book circa 1972 in a paperback edition).  Besides being read by millions it served as the basis of Spike Lee’s 2000 film. It was co-authored by Alex Haley (later of Roots fame) for whom Marable has a constrained contempt that smolders periodically throughout his writing.

It was because of Haley that the "Autobiography does not read like a manifesto for black insurrection, but more in the tradition of Benjamin Franklin’s autobiography.” (p. 505) More importantly it was the decision to eliminate the Autobiography’s “missing chapters," that in Marable’s estimation was undertaken by Haley alone.  These chapters which are now privately owned, and remain in a safe in Detroit, were available to Marable for a total of fifteen minutes in a meeting with the documents’ current owner in a restaurant. The three chapters that were to appear in the Autobiography were essentially Malcolm’s political blueprint.  They were entitled “The Negro,” “The End of Christianity,” and “Twenty Million Black Muslims.” One may speculate as to the reasons why Haley, a retired career U.S. Coast Guard officer, may have suppressed these chapters.  To drastically understate the case, it is clear that he did not share Malcolm’s revolutionary vision.

Another failing of the Autobiography is the misleading and selective testimony provided by Malcolm himself. This of course is the common flaw of memoires in general and the salient reason that Mark Twain insisted that his autobiography be published a century after his death.  Malcolm’s motivation for agreeing to Haley’s proposal in the first instance was to exalt the Honorable Elijah Muhammad.  By exaggerating his criminal exploits he was only enhancing the redemptive powers of his then spiritual leader.  The reason that certain events were left unmentioned, e.g., Malcolm’s robbery of a black man in 1945, a financially inspired homosexual relationship, or that his wife was sexually unfulfilled, was undoubtedly embarrassment.

The rupture and separation from the Nation of Islam was a protracted process.  Malcolm X was a phenomenal organizer and recruiter but jealousies, especially among Elijah Muhammad’s children who feared that he would usurp the messenger’s role, were a factor in his alienation from the Chicago secretariat of the NOI.  Another fundamental problem was that to remain true to Elijah Muhammad meant remaining out of the political arena because of the messenger’s teaching that Muslims should abstain from politics. The proverbial last straw was the then growing body of evidence that Elijah Muhammad had fathered numerous children out of wedlock with NOI secretaries including the woman with whom Malcolm had once had a relationship. The break with the NOI occurred on March 8, 1964; Malcolm was killed on February 21, 1965. In that period of less than a year that he was to live he became an orthodox Sunni Muslim, intensely engaged in political activity, and a man stalked for assassination.

After the split with the NOI Malcolm founded two different organizations.  Moslem Mosque Inc. was comprised largely of former Nation members who had followed Malcolm out of the NOI for reasons of personal loyalty and the Organization of Afro-American Unity was a secular political organization, which reflected Malcolm’s growing emphasis on Pan-Africanism and Third World revolutionary struggle.  It was during this time (he spent five months of the last year of his life traveling to Africa and the Middle East) that he promoted bringing an indictment of the United States for racist crimes to the forum of the United Nations. 

Marable spends a great deal of time documenting the machinations of the assassination plots against Malcolm X.  He asserts that “The existing evidence raises the question of whether the murder of Malcolm X was not the initiative of the Nation of Islam alone” (p.515). The FBI began its surveillance of Malcolm in 1954 and the NYPD followed suit in 1957.  At a bare minimum it is clear that law enforcement knew of the imminent and specific nature of the assassination threat to Malcolm X.  Marable suggests that they may have actually played a more active role but because both the FBI and NYPD  have thousands of pages of documents relating to the assassination, that are still classified, it may be many more years before the entire truth of those events is known.

Then there is the most contentious part of any discussion of Malcolm X, his legacy. Marable argues persuasively that revisionist attempts to make Malcolm into a liberal desegregationist reformer are simply wrong.  Marable did not live to see Tu-Nehisi Coates’ piece in the May 2011 Atlantic (replete with a photo image of the President as Malcolm) “The Legacy of Malcolm X: Why His Vision Lives On in Barack Obama.”  If he had he might have pointed out that black liberation “by whatever means necessary,” the endorsement of revolutionary violence, and Malcolm’s position that blacks that voted dutifully for Democrats were “not only chumps but a traitor[s] to [their] race” are generally not positions associated with the current President.  Malcolm’s life was in the tradition of Stagger Lee, Robert Johnson, and Tupac Shakur.  He was a dissident fighting the existing social hierarchy.  There was not a before and after Malcolm or “two Malcolm X’s” as Marable put it.  Malcolm was no more a liberal than Frantz Fanon or Che Guevara.  His legacy is that of a revolutionary.

Consumers and Trash: Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash

I posted an article recently about the use of the word "consumer" rather than "citizen," and Katie Dunn, formerly a librarian at Grinnell College (and greatly missed!) and currently a librarian at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) in Troy, NY, agreed that the use of the word consumer was as she put it "weird" and "disturbing." She responded with her thoughts on a book she is currently reading. Thank you Katie!

Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash by Susan Strasser. NY: Metropolitan Books, 1999
Burling 2nd floor  HD4482 .S77 1999
Reviewed by Katie Dunn

". . .  I am in the middle of this really cool book, Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash. It has a lot about how marketing was used to get people used to the idea of replacing things before they were actually worn out, and to give up the idea of saving/reusing/repurposing things. It shows how changes in how people think of or handle waste changed over time as a result of other things that were going on at the time. It's not a lefty polemic type book (though I tend to enjoy those, too), just a nifty history with a lot of interesting details from primary sources. Recommended!"

If you are interested in this book, you might be interested in the classic: Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered by E.F. Schumacher. NY: Harper & Row, 1975. Burling 2nd floor HB171 .S384 1975 or Economic Growth and Environmental Quality: How to Have Both by Barry Commoner. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995. Science Library GE42 .E18 1995.